The sun. [volume], February 22, 1914, FOURTH SECTION PICTORIAL MAGAZINE, Page 11, Image 43

About The sun. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1833-1916

Image provided by: The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundation

                
THE SUN, SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 22, 1914.
MORE POWERFUL X-RAYS
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An up to date X-ray outfit. The lamp is immediately above the operating tabic. The physician
works from the booth on the left, where he is sheltered from the X-rays.
AM. because of a peculiarly un
yielding gray metal It has be
ivmc possible to make a de
velopment of revolutionary
character In the newest form of X-ray
apparatus. The discovery Is the result
C'l the perseverance of Dr. William
David Coolldge and his associates of the
ri-M'.-iroh laboratory of the General Klec
11 it Company. Radiographers and radio
therapists decluru this development of
tlic X-ray tube to be the greatest dis
covery In the art since Prof. WUhclm
Kuiir.nl Roentgen In 1893 startled the
win hi with his original announcement
of an Invisible beam that could pene
trate npaiiuc bodies and make shadow
praphs of hidden objects.
The metal In question is commonly
known us tungsten, but It might better
t'O railed wolfram the wilful, as this Is
the older name for It and the adjective
attached quite fittingly characterizes the
material. Dr. Coolldge'H X-ray tube is
almost directly the consequence of ex
haustive efforts made to adapt tungsten
fur service as a filament for Incan
descent electric lights. He was not a
pioneer In this direction, for two Aus
trian. Mjessrs. Just and Ilanaman, had
preceded him.
These Ingenious Viennese made fila
ments out of the seemingly Intractable
metal by binding particles of tungsten
or tungsten oxide with an amalgam
which could be worked into wlrcllke
form and then subjected to Intense heat
in a vacuum. In this manner the ele
ments of the amalgam were burned
em unci the tungsten particles became
tnlMHled as' a filament. The light It
furnished was much more brilliant than
that of the curlion filament; consumed
far less current a candle- power, but
was so brittle that Us life was a short
one.
Too much was at stajte not to Justify
a deal of painstaking experimenting,
and accordingly the research laboratory
at Schenectady set Itself the task of
evolving a form of ductile tungsten.
Finally success was attained and n per
fectly pliable, ductile wire was produced,
as strong ns steel, which could be drawn
to halrlike diameters and yet possess
extraordinary strength. This was about
four years ago.
Trior to this the Roentgen tube was
limited in Its possibilities by the en
durance of platinum, which was used
for the target, or antlcathode, of tho
X-ray apparatus; limited because this
tnrget has to withstand Intense heat to
give off the most effective measure of
deeply penetrative rays, and the melting
point of platinum Is 3,195 degrees
Fahrenheit. The only way to Improvo
the X-ray output seemed to be to tind
a more refractory material for tho
target, one that had a higher melting
point.
Until the advent of pure malleable
tungsten there was nothing to supplant
the platinum, but then the situation
was changed. Tungsten has a melting
point nearly 60 per cent, higher than
platinum, or, to be exact, 5,432 degrees
Fahrenheit. To this extent the substi
tution of tungsten extended tho possi
bilities of the Itoentgen tube.
From tho cathode or negative element
of the X-ray tube cathode rays are
driven forth to strike the interixisod tar
get or antlcathode. The more violently
they are Impelled against the target the
stronger the resulting X-rays coming
from the antlcathode. But, unfortu
nately, this produces heat, and if the
attack Is too Impetuous or strong the
metal of the target may be raised to the
melting point and scattered against the
Inner walls of the glass lube. Therefore
by substituting the more resistant tung
sten a very material gain was secured
and more powerful X-rays were placed
within the reach of the radiographer,
the man of science and the radlo-thcra-plat.
Remember, until radium was discov
ered and physicians found uses for it the
Itoentgen tube was looked upon as a
remedial agent. In fact, the X-ray appa
ratus has done some wonderful things In
battling with various diseases and it
has been used effectively In the treat
ment of skin diseases, malignant growths,
sciatica, rheumatism, tuberculosis and
cancer. Hut unfortunately the control
of the X-ray hns been an extremely diffi
cult matter, and this. In large measure,
has been duo to the very Instability or
uncertainty In the strength of the rays
employed.
As one authority has said: "What Is
needed Is m more exact means of defini
tion of what we ure really using In a
given case. This necessity will
be more evident when we reflect how
small an Interval divides the beneficial
from the noxious dose of X-rays. Irri
tation and exuberant growth may be
produced by a dose of X-rays only
Use of; Tungsten in
the Apparatus
Pronounced the
Greatest De
velopment Since
Original Discov
ery of the Roent
gen Rays
slightly different from that which will
paralyze and kill, and this Irritative
growth Is the very sign and symbol of
malignancy. In a deep seated tumor the
surface growth may be inhibited, while
the d:eper layers are stimulated by the
same irradiation."
Apparently strength Is needed, but
strength that can be administered with
the nicest discrimination. Now we shall
begin to understand better what Dr.
Coolldge has produced.
First, however, It is necessary to un
derstand how the ordinary Roentgen tube
works. Tho electric current enters the
tube at the electrode, which Is called
the anode, and ends Its course at the
negative electrode, termed the cathode.
When the current flows through the
tube, peculiar rays occur at tho latter
point, and these are known as cathode
rays. They stream directly against the
path of the exciting positive Ions, which
are thrown off by the nnode and which
actually Induce the cathode rays by this
bombardment of the cathode.
The cathode rays Impinge upon the
Interposed target, or antlcathode ns It
Is so frequently called. The higher the
vacuum In the tubo the greater the
speed of the electrons or cathode rays,
bee ause there are fewer molecules of gas
to Interrupt the flight of the electrons.
Accordingly, tho greater the speed of
the cathode raj's the more penetrating
the resulting X-rays emanating from
the target.
To put It In another way, whenevei n
rapidly moving electron comes In con
tact with a material body, a concussion
occurs in the surrounding ether analo
gous to that which is caused when n
bullet hits nn object, and splinters from
the opposing mass, In their turn, set the
On the left, X-ray picture of a
metal rod passing through a metal
ring. Curious because of the ap
parent photograph of shadows. On
the right, X-ray pictures of lilies
of the valley, snowing that the
rays produce a veritable picture
of the flower's substance and not
a mere shadowgraph.
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An unusual photograph of an X-ray tube in action made by means of its own light.
I. The cathode. 3. Lumlnotu, effect produced by the attack of InUiible positive1 tons projected from the anode. 4. 3. The path ot the cathode
rays on ihclr ay to the urrct In the centre, ot the flobe. &. ItcDectlon ot the luminous cathode on the opposite Inner surface of the lobe. The
cathode Ij made luminous by the heat rcsultlnr from the attack of the posltlte Ions. . The lone of .X-rays can off by the tarret In response to Ihe
assault of the cathode rays.
enveloping atmosphere In motion. The
ether impulses which spread In all di
rections from the face of a Roentgen
tule target are X-rays.
Roentgen therapy rests on the ability
of these X-rays to change the living cell,
sometimes even killing the cell Just us
sunlight does. Hut while the sunlight af
fects principally, only the surface of the
body, the X-rays exert nn Influence on
tissues lying deeper. Just how this
metamorphosis Is brought about is not
yet known, but apparently diseased cells
ure made to purge themselves or to dis
solve ami pass uway Into the circula
tion. We can not go Into all of the technical
niceties by which Dr. Coolldge evolved
his present apparatus. In a great meas
ure his discoveries came about while
studying how to Improve the antl
cathode or tnrget of the ordinary com
mercial X-ray tube. In order to deter
mine the ultimate resistance of this part
of the apparatus his experiments were
cnrrled to tho point of the ruin or the
destruction of the target.
In thus learning practically how
much energy was required to destroy
the target he. learned some things that
might otherwise not have come within
his ken. Having thus evolved u satis
factory tungsten target he set himself
the task of getting rid of some of tho
other limitations peculiar to the X-ray
tube of the usual type. Strange to say,
In doing this he found ways to upset
previously accepted theories, and In the
end discovered how he could perfect a
far more powerful Roentgen tube a
tube that works as no other X-ray tubo
has before. At the same time he Inci
dentally evolved Increased facility of
control.
Remember, we started out with the
substitution of n tungsten target In
place of the previously prevailing plat
inum antlcathode. Well, It was not
long after this change was made that
Dr. Coolldge saw that tho usual massive
aluminum cathode was apt to melt
when the tube was working with a very
heavy discharge. In fact, molten glob
ules of the cathode were hurled against
the glass of the tube. When resulting
in nothing worse this injury to the
cathode changed the focal spot ot the
electrons, and this In turn hurt tho re
sulting X-rays, upset their control, and
when used for making shadowgraphs
caused the picture to be blurred and
unsatisfactory.
It then occurred to Dr. Coolldge to
displace tho aluminum cathode by em
ploying one made of tungsten, taking
advantage of the higher melting point
of the latter, which is four and a half
times greater than that of aluminum.
Rut trouble began ns soon as curient
was passed Into the tube, for the be
havior of the appuratus was distinctly
cranky, or Uko the ordinary outfit when
working badly.
However, by passing current through
only for a very brief while, then cutting
it off, then turning it on again, gradu
ally the functioning steadied until the
tube would wotk continuously and well
for several minutes.
Dr. Irving I.angmulr, also of the re
search laboratory staff, had found that
n hot tungsten cathode In n very high
vacuum, much higher than that or
dnlarlly employed In a Roentgen ray
tube, could be made to yield continuously
a supply of electrons, and this supply was
regulated entirely by tho temperature.
Here was the germ of a revolutionary
procedure, for It meant that the elec
trons hurled from the cathode were not
to depend upon the inducing attack ol
bombarding positive ions from the
anode, but would be Inspired by the
temperature of tho cathode, and thli
by a suitable control of current could
be regulated to a nicety, ranging from
3,434 to 4,60! degrees Fahrenheit.
The usual X-ray tube has a vacuum
of a few microns, but In th case of the
Coolldge apparatus this Is reduced tr
not more than a few hundredths of a
micron, and at this extremely low pres
sure there arc not enough molecules ot
gas available to provide transport for
the electrical charge, even though the
pressure of the current reach the great
potential of 100.000 volts, but when
the cathode Is heated all this Is changed,
and from It pours a stream of pure
electronic discharge.
RELICS OF A PREHISTORIC PEOPLE IN RIO GRANDE VALLEY &.nN&
Li i.N'O before Coronado and his
band of explorers from Spain In
vaded what is now New Mexico
In quest of adventure and gold
four centuries ago a race of people lived
and flourished on the banks of the
arrnyos of the upper IUo Grande region,
it Is thought that they were there from
one thousand to two thousand years ago.
These prehistoric people built com
munity villages of stone and adobe, with
houes of quaint design, sometimes of
pyramidal type and again suggesting
a castle of feudal times, and usually
their villages were planned with a view
to obtaining a plentiful water supply,
and always with regard for ample de
fence The construction of their dwell
ings, built either In rectangular form or
in a semicircle around a court with
terraced rooms erected blocklike toward
the outer wall, shows that they feared
attacks from their enemies and took
precautions to be on the defensive.
During the last two years Nels C.
Nelson, formerly of the University of
('allinrnla, has been conducting an ex
IX'illtiun In the Southwest and particu
lar!) m the region of the. Qallsteo Basin
anj along the tributaries of the Rio
Onii il,., In the sagebrush, arid land of
New Mexico. His object has been to
Kather archaeological specimens and to
determine through research by excava
tions the prehistoric culture of this
ru-iou in relation to the culture of to
day. Mr. Nelson has recently returned
from tho Rio Grande region with more
than 2,000 specimens of archaeological
interest for the American Museum of
Natural History, and his study and re
search in the Galtsteo Rasln will un
doubtedly throw light upon the civiliza
tion of the prehistoric people who once
lived there In primitive castles of adobe
and limestone and subsisted on the
maize which they ground on stone for
food.
"I consider It the most Interesting
archseologlcnl region in the United
States," said Mr. Nelson, "and It Is rich
In specimens, which .unquestionably re
veal hints of a life and civilization now
almost forgotten."
For nearly two months on one expedi
tion the archieologlst lived in a cave,
where he cooked his meals and was a
veritable cave dweller. Ho was assisted
in his work of excavating the ancient
ruins of prehistoric villages by native
Mexicans and Indians ot the Rio Grande
region. Last fall he camped in a pre
historic dwelling, which was probably
Inhabited one thousand years ago by
a family ot an extinct race a van
ished people. A piece otLcanvaa was
stretched over the ruins or the ancient
dwelling and formed a canopy, a pro
tection against the elements.
It has been generally supposed that
the Indians derived certain Ideas per
taining to altars and Images from the
Spaniards, but one of the discoveries
made by Mr, Nelson Includes an altar
on which was placed an Imago with
humanlike face carved in stone. It
might have been a family shrine, or It
might have been used for public cere
monials in some village peopled by a
prehistoric race. Unmistakably this old
altar is a prehistoric shrine. This place
of devotion consisted of a large earthen
platform, on which stood a human
Image of stone, surrounded by various
offerings in tho shape of natural and
artificial objects.
The shrine was In a room of a ruined
building at Pueblo Iargo, in the Oat
Isteo Basin, and in a village which evi
dently has not been Inhabited since the
period of Spanish exploration In the
Southwest. Similar shrines still have a
place in the religion ot the I'ueblo In
dians to-day and It is not unreasonable
to assume from the finding of this al
tar that this feature of their ceremonial
life Is of native origin and not duo to
European Influence.
The ruins of the prehistoric pueblos
of the Rio Grande region Indicate that
these people were artistically Inclined.
Many of their drawings and carvings on
stone arc symbolical, although some of
their pictures ot animals may Ik merely
representations of the creatures of the
period. Some of the pictures represent
the sun, the clouds and other aspects
of nature. The horned serpent fre
quently appears and sometimes human
heads with horns are noted. Among
other animals depicted by the prehis
toric artists are bears, deer, squirrels,
and several designs portray warriors
with spears and shields,
I'ortrayals of horned serpents were
found near I'ueblo San Cristobal. One
of the largest of the rock pictures
representing a horned serpent was not
less than twenty-five feet In length,
and presumably more In Its original
state. Snukes arc still held in high re
gard by the Indians of the Southwest,
and in the Ilopl villages play an im
Itortant role In the rain producing cere
monies. Kxamples of 'pottery found at Tueblo
San Cristobal are of prehistoric design
and among these specimens are bowls
and small Jars with painted and glazed
decoration.
The field work of the Nelson expedi
tion began at Ysleta del Bur, a few'mlles
below Kl Paso, Tex., and the advance
was made up the valley chiefly by
short railroad Journeys. Sometimes
side trips were taken on horseback or
by wagon as conditions favored.
Mr. Nelson covered a three hundred
mile stretch on his expedition, and when
he reached the Cochltl Canon in the
latitude of Santa Fe, the location of
more than one hundred archaeological
sites had been ascertained. The sites
Included caves, rock shelters, camp sites
and petroglyphs as well as extensive
ruins.
In the opinion of the archaeologist the
region was well suited for the advance
of primitive culture In the prehistoric
times. Most of the ruins located by the
expedition are not situated on the banks
of the great river which flows through
the Southwest, but to the east and
west, thirty or forty miles away.
"It Is quite certain," says Mr. Nel
son, "that these people of prehistoric
times were ancestors of the I'ueblo In
dians. Their method of house building
and agricultural pursuits and general
way of living indicate their relation to
the I'ueblo Indians. They arrived lie
fore the Spaniards, and afterward their
descendants lived under Spanish influ
ence until New Mexico was taken by
the United States.
"The question usually propounded Is,
'Where did these people of prehistoric
times como from?' It is a general
theory that they came from the north
and legends handed down to-day indi
cate or point to this conclusion. Na
tlvo Mexicans also entertain this be
lief. It is Hsslble that tho prehistoric
people came to America by the way
of the Bering Strnlts."
But that Is a problem unsolved, and
Mr. Nelson may take it up on some
future expedition.
Much of the work of the Nelson ex
pedition was accomplished in the Gal
isteo Basin. The Gallsteo pueblos re
semble those observed elsewhere In the
Rio Grande region.
"They represent villages of the well
known cummunlstlc type," saye tho ar
chieologlst, "consisting of a scries of
buildings arranged at right angles in
such a way as to form one or more
enclosed courts or plazas.
"Within these enclosures ore often
found traces of seml-subterraneun
structures, and In fact a type of under
ground house used to-day by the
I'ueblo Indians of the Rlu Grande.
"The scheme of house building was
somewhat unique, nnd ulso varied in
the pueblos of tho region explored by
the expedition.
"In one of the ruined buildings seventy-two
rooms were found upon the
ground floor, and evidently the orig
inal structure was from two to three
stories high. Another ruined structure
measured seven hundred feet in length,
and must havo contained several hun
dred rooms.
Fireplaces were discovered In some
of these ruins, but no chimneys,
With reference to the ancient peo
ple Dr. I'llny Karle Goddnrd, associate
curator of anthropology at the Ameri
can Museum, says In a book recently
published on Indians ot the Southwest:
"Because there arc various kinds of
ruins in tho Southwest it has been be
lieved by some that they were the
homes of two separate peoples. Those
who built the houses under the cliffs
and In caves have been called the cliff
dwellers, while those who built in the
valleys have been called Aztecs under
the belief that the founders of ancient
on
Ago
Mexico migrated from the Southwest
at an early date.
"In Chaco Canyon, a branch of Chacc
Valley, there is a cluster of clever
large ruins which evidently represent
an Important political group of prehls
torlo villages. One of these, I'ueblc
Ilontto, Is hardly surpassed In size and
Interest anywhere.
"On the western side of the Rlt
Grande are many large ruins. Uetweet
the Rio I'ecos and the Rio Grande then
ure many ruins and evidences of for
mer occupation by pottery making
people. Some of these ruins, notably
those known us Abo, Quara, Tablna ot
Gran Qulvlrn, wero still occupied undei
Spanish rule."
Incidental to the Nelson expedition-!
work in tho Gallsteo region seven
weeks were given to tho excavation o
the historically famous ruin of Kotylt
on I'otrero Vlego, a few miles 'west o
the Rio Grande and not far from Santa
Fe.
Tills ruin shows signs of having beet
occupied In very ancient times, but wai
a village of refuge after tho Indlar
rebellion In 16S0, and later was de
stroyed by the Spaniards,
Tho work of the Nelson expcditlor
In the pueblos of the Rio Grande Val
ley places the American Museum ot
Natural History In the first rank with
Its collections of specimens and date
regarding the culture of that Interest,
ing region.
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A prehistoric shrine found at Pueblo Largo, by Nelsoa expe
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Petroglyph of horned serpent found by Nelson expedition.
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